According to LaBerge and Samuels, what does slow, labored reading indicate?

Slow, labored reading often signals a lack of word automaticity, which is the ability to recognize words quickly and effortlessly. When readers struggle to read fluently, it usually means they are having to focus heavily on decoding individual words rather than being able to automatically recognize them. This can detract from their overall reading experience, leading to frustration and reduced comprehension, as cognitive resources are overly consumed by the process of decoding. Automaticity is crucial in reading because it allows individuals to allocate more mental effort toward understanding the text, rather than getting caught up in the mechanics of reading.

In contrast, while lack of comprehension, poor vocabulary skills, and difficulty with context clues can impact reading abilities, they do not specifically point to the slow, laborious pace of reading that characterizes an absence of word automaticity. Understanding this distinction is critical for identifying reading challenges and supporting effective literacy interventions.